不眠症治療薬ルネスタ錠(エスゾピクロン)
厚生労働省の薬事・食品衛生審議会(薬食審)医薬品第一部会は7日、エーザイの不眠症治療薬ルネスタ錠(エスゾピクロン)など5成分の承認の可否について審議し、承認を了承した。
エーザイの担当者によると、脳内の覚醒系の神経伝達の抑制を担う神経伝達物質(GABA)の効果を増強させることで睡眠を誘発する。長期連用しても、有効性が減弱しないことが特長という。
ポジティブ心理学
いま、米国ではコーチングのあり方が問われ始めている。
日本でも人材育成や自己啓発の目的で利用が増え続けているコーチングだが、先行する米国では一大産業となっている。国際コーチ連盟(ICF)によると、コーチング産業による全世界の総収益は毎年15億米ドル(約1200億円)に上るという。
こうした動きに対して、ハーバード・メディカルスクール(ハーバード大学医学部)とマクリーン病院(ハーバード大学医学部付属精神科)は、毎年秋に2日間の「コーチング会議」を主催している。今年で4年目を迎えた「コーチング会議」は、ハーバード大学におけるポジティブ心理学に関する取り組みを紹介する絶好の機会として一般にも公開されてきた。基調講演に加え、リーダーシップコーチング、ヘルスとウェルネス(医療)コーチング、ポジティブ心理学とコーチングなど、今年も各分野の第一人者20人を講演者に迎え、例年どおり盛況となった。
安易なコーチングに警鐘ならすハーバード大医学部
実は、ハーバード大学が先導してコーチングの改革に乗り出した背景には、コーチング産業が巨大化する一方で、効果を実証する科学的データもなく、実際に効果のあったコーチング手法を再現する方法や体系化された理論もなく今日に至っているという実態への危惧がある。
医師には、技術や資格面での厳格な統一基準があるのに、コーチにはそれがない。本来であればコーチにもそれ相応の技術や資格が課されるべきであったとする意見も多い。コーチングには誰でも参入できクライアントを持てるため、玉石混交の状態のまま市場規模が拡大してきたという深い反省が込められている。
ハーバード発のコーチング改革というこの新たな動きの大きな要因として、何よりもコーチング産業に関わる人が増えたことで、米国におけるコーチングの質やコーチとしての資格取得をめぐる不透明さに対するコーチたち自身の目が厳しくなってきたこともある。
こうした構造的な不完全さを解消するために、コーチングにおける科学的基盤の構築を心理学に求める動きがここ数年、急速に高まってきた。そこで大いに重宝されているのが、ポジティブ心理学の理論や実証的な研究データなのである。
ヒトは「病気でない」というだけでは、心身ともに健康で、幸せや生きがいに満ちた人生を実現できるような状態を手に入れられるとは限らない。個人も組織も、現状を改善し、ポジティブ(前向き)な変革を成し遂げようとするならば、意図的な努力に加えて、しかるべき条件とプロセスが求められる。
それがポジティブ心理学の研究対象とする領域であり、またポジティブ心理学の応用としてのコーチングが人々に必要とされるゆえんでもある。
ハーバード・メディカルスクールのキャロル・カウフマン氏は、ポジティブ心理学の勢いを借りて、ポジティブ心理学の発展と二人三脚でコーチングの改革を推進したいと考えた。
そこで、コーチングの理論的研究とベストプラクティスを全面的に支援すべく2009年に同校に「インスティチュート・オブ・コーチング」(コーチング研究所)を創設し、コーチたちの支援に全面的に力を注いでいる。
コーチング研究に関する学術文献数は、近年になって急増しているものの、研究の質・量ともにまだまだ向上を要することが指摘されている。ハーバードでの取り組みをはじめとする研究のさらなる発展に伴い、コーチングにも信頼に足る実証的基盤が確立される日が来ることが期待されている。
「幸福感」の確認でエリートたちの苦悩を解く試み
ハーバード大学で一番の人気授業だったポジティブ心理学講座を支えたショーン・エイカー氏の『幸福優位 7つの法則』では、「幸福優位性(ハピネス・アドバンテージ)」という少々耳慣れない言葉が紹介されている。
これは、何事もまずは幸福感(ポジティブな感情)ありきで、幸福感を持った結果としてあらゆる物事がうまく回り出すことが神経科学の研究からも明らかにされているというキー概念を表す言葉だ。
今年のハーバード・コーチング会議で、ポジティブ心理学とコーチングのセッションを担当した当分野の第一人者であるロバート・ビスワス=ディーナー講師は、この「幸福優位性」の重要性を常に再確認させた。そして、幸福感はコーチングの達成すべき目標であるだけでなく、コーチとクライアントの間でポジティブな関係性を築くなど、幸福感をコーチングの手段として活用することの有効性を提唱する。
過去の会議では、「幸福優位性」を人材育成に適用して自らの職場で成果を挙げているという人物の実演が参加者の絶大な人気をさらったこともある。その人物とは、来日したこともあるボストン・フィルハーモニー管弦楽団の指揮者で著名なコーチのベンジャミン・ザンダー氏である。
ザンダー氏のやり方はこうだ。自らが講師を務める音楽院で、毎年、新年度のはじめに、60人の音楽家の卵たちに「A」という文字を書かせる。日本でいうなら「5」か「優」の成績となる。
「A」という文字とともに成績が授与される学年の最後の日の日付も書かせる。そして、なぜ学年末に自分が「A」をもらえたのかを学生自身に説明させ、「A」をもらった自分に「惚れさせる」。そのとき、すかさず「自分はAなど取れないのではないか」とささやきかける自分の声を完全に念頭から追いやるようにと指導するのだ。
すると「A」は、今あるダメで不幸な自分が追いつくべき目標ではなく、これから起きるすべての出来事の出発点へと変わる。「A」をもらった幸せな自分からスタートする、まさに「幸福優位」に立つのだ。
結果的に、学生たちは外からの期待に添うように頑張るのではなく、「A」という新たな「未来の現実」(エイカー氏の言葉を借りれば、「可能性がある」から「可能である」へと変容を遂げた現実)の中に自らを見出して生きるようになるという。
ザンダー氏によると、音楽家の卵たちは、仲間たちとの激しい競争や、教師からの厳しい評価に戦々恐々とし、張り詰めた緊張感のなかで日々音楽の練習に明け暮れている。またオーケストラ団員たちも、指揮者をトップとする伝統的な階級社会であるオーケストラの世界にあって、自分たちの仕事に対する満足度は極めて低いという。
だが、「A」をもらった学生たちだけではなく、階級のトップにいる教師も、学生たちに「A」を与えたという事実を受けて変わり始める。教師と学生の間には、従来の階級ではなくて、「A」がつなぐ新たな関係性が築かれるのだ。「オーケストラという閉鎖的な環境においてこの変化は大きい」とザンダー氏は言う。
ザンダー氏の講演が終了し、熱気に包まれた会場の真ん中で、ある参加者が立ち上がり発言した。
「あなたのような師にもっと早く出会えていれば、私は若い時に音楽の道を諦めずに済んだ。とにかく練習が厳しくて、耐えられずに断念したのです。私は美しい音楽の世界を諦めるとともに、その世界に生きようとする自分の可能性も捨ててしまったのだと気づきました」
涙ながらに語る声が会場に響き渡ったとき、参加者の感動はピークに達したようだった。つかさずもう1人の参加者が、声を大にして叫んだ。
「私は会社役員ですが、この方法は私の職場でも十分に使える。もっと早く知っておけばよかった!」
“集中”がカギ、心理学からポジティブ・コンピューティングへ
ポジティブ心理学の創始者であり、ペンシルベニア大学心理学部のマーティン・セリグマン教授が指揮する最新研究プロジェクトに「世界ウェルビーイング・プロジェクト(WWBP)」がある。
人々が最もよく作用し、幸せや生きがいに満ちた人生を実現できるような状況(ウェルビーイング)を世界的規模で創り出すにはどうしたらよいのか。この目標に対して、教育における取り組みだけではあまりにも進展が遅いことがネックとなっていたところに、各方面からIT技術者が集まってきた。
フェイスブック、マイクロソフト、ヒューレット・パッカード、マサチューセッツ工科大学(MIT)、スタンフォード大学などからIT技術者たちが一堂に会し、英語圏でインターネットを利用する億単位のユーザー向けにウェルビーイングを測定評価し、増進するための配信モデルを考案中である。
これは別名「ポジティブ・コンピューティング」とも呼ばれる、インターネットを利用したポジティブ心理学に関する全世界的な取り組みで、その他にも米国の複数の大学や民間企業で盛んに行われている。
一例として、ハーバード大学心理学部のダニエル・ギルバート教授の研究室では、「あなたの幸福度を追跡記録する(Track Your Happiness)」と名づけたiPhoneアプリを利用しての研究を進めている。
これは、回答者がどれほど幸せに感じているのか、その時何をしているのか、ぼんやりしていたのか集中していたのかなど、1分ほどの質問に答えてもらい、その瞬間の回答者自身の状態について調査するものだ。
その結果、回答者がその時々で具体的に何をしていたかではなく、物事に“集中”していたかどうかが幸福度アップのカギを握るという興味深い事実が判明した。
さらには、ゲームに集中しているときに生まれるポジティブな感情(向社会的感情)や、人と一緒にゲームに興じるときに生まれるポジティブな関係性、ゲームにおける達成感など、ゲームが人々のウェルビーイングに及ぼす影響力への研究も進む。
その第一人者でゲームを通して現実の人生の幸福を構築していく可能性を提唱しているのが、世界的に著名なゲームクリエーターのジェーン・マクゴニガル氏である。詳しくはマクゴニガル氏の新刊『幸せな未来は「ゲーム」が創る』を参照されたい。
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というような記事
その時々で具体的に何をしていたかではなく、物事に“集中”していたかどうかが幸福度アップのカギを握る
ゲームを通して現実の人生の幸福を構築していく可能性
What Books Have Been Written About CAT?
Change for the Better: Self Help Through Practical Psychotherapy [Paperback]
Elizabeth Wilde McCormick (Author)Cognitive-analytic Therapy - Active Participation in Change: New Integration in Brief Psychotherapy (Wiley series on psychotherapy & counselling) [Paperback]
Anthony Ryle (Author)Cognitive Analytic Therapy: Developments in Theory and Practice (Wiley Series in Psychotherapy and Counselling) [Paperback]
Anthony Ryle (Editor)Introducing Cognitive Analytic Therapy: Principles and Practice [Paperback]
Anthony Ryle (Author), Ian B. Kerr (Author)New Edition of Change for the Better by Elizabeth Wilde McCormick
This is a guide for real people living and struggling in real life, ordinary circumstances! It is full of humane, creative compassion for those who would like to change' - "Counselling Psychology Review"."Change for the Better, Third Edition" is a popular, practical guide for therapists and clients which describes in ordinary language how learned patterns of response contribute to psychological problems such as depression, anxiety, phobia, and relationship difficulty. Presenting an easy-to-follow programme, leading psychotherapist, Elizabeth Wilde-McCormick shows readers how to identify their own different inner dialogues, and the traps, dilemmas, snags, and unstable states of mind that lead to things going wrong. Exercises feature throughout the book to enable self-reflection and help the reader achieve lasting change.Based on Cognitive Analytic Therapy, a focussed short term therapy pioneered and developed at Guy's and St Thomas' Hospitals in London, "Change for the Better, Third Edition" can be used as a self-contained self-help programme or as preparation for clients entering therapy. It is also recommended to students on CAT courses and many therapists find the book helpful in their own development and as a source of material to use directly with clients. In response to its continuing popularity, this third edition has been published, including the most recent development in CAT practice. The new edition also places emphasis upon the transformation of unhelpful learned reciprocal role procedures that underlie our relationship with ourselves and other people.It also features new chapters on unstable states of mind seen in people given a borderline personality diagnosis, on dissociation, eating problems, and stress. Elizabeth Wilde McCormick has been in practice as a psychotherapist for over twenty five years. She is also a teacher, trainer and writer. She is a founder member of The Association for Cognitive Analytic Therapy at Guy's Hospital, London, and the author of a number of best-selling self-help books.
幻覚・妄想状態と並べて書くのは大きな間違いである
幻覚・妄想状態と並べて書くのは大きな間違いである
物事の根本を一度も考えたことのない人間であるという印である
たいていは幻覚は被害的幻聴のことを指している
これは時間遅延理論でいう自我障害の典型である
妄想状態は全く別の成立をしている
そのような二つを、ないはずのものがあるという意味での陽性症状などというのも
全く気に入らない
例えばの話、時間遅延によって被害的幻聴が発生しているときに
なぜそんな声が聞こえるはずがあるだろうか
なぜ君はCIAに狙われるはずがあるだろうか
そのように言われて妄想構築を促進されるのである
完全に余計な質問である
Cognitive–analytic therapy Chess Denman-2
Severe borderline personality disorder
Practising CAT as described above is suitable for less severely disorganised personalities and neurotic conditions. However, when the patient suffers from borderline personality disorder a piecemeal approach to individual maladaptive procedures becomes ineffective. This is because as each procedural sequence is tackled the patient takes flight into different reciprocal-role structures; in effect, patient and therapist chase each other around the patient's diagram.
Nevertheless, these diagrams are particularly useful in adapting CAT for use with patients who have borderline personality disorder. With such patients, the focus should be integration and the therapeutic aim should be to enable patients to gain an overview of the wildly discontinuous self-states they can find themselves occupying. CAT therapists conceptualise this aim as the development of an ‘observing I', who is concerned and involved but neither overwhelmed nor silenced.
Probably a key therapeutic technique in helping the development of an observing I is modelling. By watching as the therapist (more or less successfully) continues to describe what is going on for the patient without becoming drawn into enacting any of the patient's reciprocal role patterns and by trying to do this him- or herself, the patient builds up an inner state that embodies this stance. This technique of involved non-collusion is similar to a range of therapeutic modalities for borderline personality disorder. But CAT is distinctive in its use of the diagram as a guide for patient and therapist about what is going on in a session. CAT is also distinctive in combining elements of interpersonal and object relations theory in its understanding of the patient with a frank and educative model that supposes that the patient, at least in part, can be an active and cooperating partner rather than a consciously or unconsciously motivated opponent.
Let us return to Paul (case vignette 2). Despite misgivings, Paul was offered therapy. In order to help Paul's therapist, at the very first meeting the assessor drew a sketch of a tentative diagram of reciprocal roles known as a sequential diagramatic reformulation (SDR). There had not been time in the assessment to share this with Paul, but it became immediately relevant in the first therapy session when Paul, upset at seeing a different person from his assessor, began to denigrate and devalue the therapist. After the therapist had shared her version of the diagram, Paul was able to admit that he was frightened of coming to therapy because he thought the therapist would be sneering at him (Fig. 4⇓).
Comparing CAT with other therapies
As its name implies, CAT shares elements of both cognitive and psychoanalytical psychotherapies. Psychoanalytical concepts, particularly those drawn from the independent group, have been central to the phase of CAT marked by the development of the SDR. The theory of reciprocal roles and of reciprocal-role induction allows CAT to conceptualise the psychoanalytical concepts of transference, countertransference and projective identification in ways that Ryle claims are less mystifying and more practically useful (Ryle, 1994b, 1998). CAT therapists regard transference phenomena and their countertransferential responses as useful sources of information about the patient's reciprocal-role procedures. Importantly, the reformulation's specification of reciprocal-role procedures can also be used to predict the likely development of the transference–countertransference relationship and hence to anticipate difficulties and developments in therapy.
Another strand in CAT's relationship with psychoanalysis is Ryle's critical struggle with psychoanalytical thinking, especially of the Kleinian school, which has resulted in a key series of papers that engage with both Kleinian technique and theory (Ryle, 1992, 1993, 1995b). Ryle's principal argument with Kleinian theory lies in his view that in severe cases such as borderline personality disorder the symptomatic experiences and behaviours of patients are consequent on psychic “unintegration” and the formation of multiple-self states. This contrasts with the Klein/Bion perspective, in which borderline states are associated with psychic disintegration and attacks on linking (Bion, 1967). Ryle levels a similar set of criticisms at Fonagy's theory of a mind-based conceptualisation of borderline personality disorder (Fonagy, 1991). In this theory, the self turns on its own mental functions to obliterate the horror of acknowledging that the mind of the abuser conceived of and carried out abusive acts (Ryle, 1998).
In recent years, CAT theorists have shown reduced interest in the less severe psychological conditions. CAT's chief causal explanation for such conditions appeals to procedural sequences that are malformed and not revised. There is a considerable body of theory within CAT that seeks for reasons why these procedures, which are set up to be self-correcting, are not revised for the better. However, signally absent among these reasons is any appeal to defence against unconscious conflict. It is CAT's resolute rejection of defence as a major mechanism in symptom formation that marks it out from psychoanalytic perspectives.
To these theoretical differences must be added some strong views about technical issues. In relation to psychoanalytical practice, Ryle regards the long intense treatments practised by an ‘invisible' and studiedly neutral analyst as likely to generate abnormal phenomena, which themselves become the spurious basis for theory-making. A good example of these views appears in Ryle (1996), where he also sets out a key CAT distinction between interpretation and description. For Ryle, psychoanalytical interpretation risks involving the interpreter in claiming special knowledge about the interpreted that is not accessible to direct test by the interpreted subject. Description, on the other hand, he conceives of as a joint process, in which the close inspection of what is available to consciousness can reveal more and more of what is not so easily available. CAT therapists therefore characterise their activities as descriptive rather than interpretive.
CAT shares with cognitive therapy a stress on the detailed analysis of the conscious antecedents and consequences of symptoms, the production and sharing of a detailed descriptive formulation with the patient, the setting of homework and a focus on, and problem-solving approach to, difficulties. Ryle deliberately drew on Kelly's personal construct psychology (Kelly, 1955) and his concept of the individual as scientist actively construing the world. This concept chimes well with the setting of behavioural experiments used in CBT. Marzillier & Butler's (1995) review of commonalities and differences between CAT and CBT identifies these similarities among others. They show CAT's commonalities both with schema-focused CBT (Young, 1990) and with Teasdale & Barnard's (1993) interacting cognitive subsystems (ICS) model. They find few differences other than ones of emphasis in relation to these models, so that their overview of CAT is in favour of classifying it as one of the cognitive therapies.
However, Marzillier & Butler's cognitivist reading of CAT would not be shared by a significant number of CAT therapists. Ryle himself, presented with the ICS model, is sharply critical. He regards it as being far too focused on intra-individual interactions between internal automata, and in consequence inclined to neglect the crucial importance of the external world, particularly the social world, in structuring experience. Thus, for Ryle, CAT is different from CBT, and particularly the ICS model is different from CAT, because the latter emphasises social interaction rather than individual processes as the primary unit of analysis. However, this criticism of the ICS model may not be entirely warranted.
There are powerful points of similarity between schema-focused CBT and CAT, and it is probably more fair to characterise their differences as ones of emphasis. I have explored these differences with a colleague (Allison & Denman, 2001). To my eye the key differences between the two lie in the consistent CAT emphasis on interaction and on social interaction, embodied in the notion of a reciprocal role that is a block of procedural knowledge about how to ‘do’ a particular kind of relationship and what to expect from it. This can certainly be viewed as a kind of schema, although it is more complex in internal structure than a normal CBT schema. Interestingly, in an early paper Young (1986) suggested schema clusters that look very like reciprocal roles but does not seem to have followed this up in later work.
Cognitive therapists who work in the schema-focused tradition often find much to agree with in CAT. A not infrequent comment is that CAT therapists should therefore just get on with doing CBT, which is better validated – although the validation of schema-focused models is debatable. CAT therapists, however, continue to feel that the CAT perspective offers approaches to interpersonal and motivational issues that are better developed and more subtly nuanced than those used by CBT. This certainly would be Ryle's view, as expressed in his review of cognitive approaches to borderline personality disorder (Ryle, 1998).
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Who is suitable for CAT?
Traditionally, CAT therapists have taken on a very wide range of patients. As a result, CAT has been tried for many conditions, including anxiety disorders and depression, deliberate self-harm, abnormal illness behaviour (particularly in diabetes) and, most particularly, the personality disorders (Cowmeadow, 1994; Fosbury, 1994; Ryle, 1997). With all these conditions there has been some success. One contraindication is current drug or alcohol use to the point of active intoxication (Ryle, 1997: p. 86). This is to some extent a matter of degree, the main issue being the difficulty of conducting sessions with an intoxicated patient. Poor or absent motivation, resulting in failure to attend sessions, may be another contraindication, because in a brief therapy missing too many sessions nullifies any effect. Even so, it is often worth seeing whether the reformulation stage of CAT draws the patient in sufficiently to make therapy viable.
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The evidence base
There is a growing, but still far from adequate, evidence base in CAT. The current situation is well summarised by Margison (2000), who highlights the lack of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) validating CAT. Nevertheless, some studies do exist. An early paper (Brockman et al, 1987) showed that CAT conducted by trainees was as effective as Mann's brief psychotherapy (Mann & Goldman, 1982). Since then the predominantly NHS base of CAT has made funding for formal trials difficult to obtain. However, a number of promising results have been published (summarised in Ryle, 1995a), and recent uncontrolled series obtained at the United Medical and Dental Schools of Guy's King's and St Thomas' (UMDS) and at Addenbrookes using both CAT-specific and other measures are encouraging in relation to both borderline personality disorder and more general practice in a psychotherapy department. Any current assessment of the status of the evidential basis for CAT must depend on an evaluation of descriptive studies and uncontrolled series. Supporters of RCT methodologies in psychological treatments tend to be less convinced by uncontrolled studies than those who are more sceptical about the unique value RCT research methodology in psychotherapy. A good description of some of the limitations of RCT methodologies can be found in Bateman & Fonagy (2000).
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Training and development
Although there are quite severe complexities in some aspects of CAT theory, practising psychotherapists, especially those with experience in both cognitive and psychodynamic approaches, should find much that is familiar. They may be able to acheive a usable level of competence in CAT by reading the key texts and having some supervision. For those with less experience of psychotherapy, formal training programmes exist. Such formal training is usually necessary for anyone wishing to become a member of the Association of Cognitive Analytic Therapists (ACAT), which exists to promote training in and standards of CAT.
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Multiple choice questions
Procedural sequences:
were developed in an attempt to understand aim-directed action
involve only feeling and acting
contain a check step
are always revised for the better if faulty
if faulty are in the form of snags, traps and dilemmas.
Procedural sequences remain unrevised because:
the check step has been avoided in some way
the alternatives are equally unacceptable
the procedure is never enacted
opportunities for learning new procedures have been too plentiful
caregivers have given injunctions that restrict procedural learning.
In borderline personality disorder:
level-one states are more numerous than in normal behaviour
level-two switching displays a ‘hair-trigger’ response
level-three self-reflection is often weak or absent
level-one and level-two difficulties explain much of the changeability characteristic of the disorder
CAT has no distinctive explanation for the affective features.
In CAT:
treatment usually lasts either 16 or 24 sessions
the therapist gives the patient a reformulation letter at about the fourth session
the therapist avoids mentioning termination
therapist and patient exchange goodbye letters at the end of therapy
follow-up sessions are discouraged.
CAT:
is suitable only for a small range of patient problems
is contraindicated if the patient is actively intoxicated
should never be attempted where motivation is poor or absent
has a small evidence base and urgently needs randomised controlled trials
is administered by an organisation called ACAT.
Previous Section
References
↵ Allison, D. & Denman, C. (2001) Comparing models in cognitive therapy and cognitive analytical therapy. In Evidence in the Psychological Therapies: A Critical Guide for Practitioners (eds C. Mace, S. Moorey & B. Roberts). Philadelphia, PA: Routledge.
↵ Aveline, M. (2001) Very brief dynamic therapy. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, in press.
Bateman, A. W. & Fonagy, P. (2000) Effectiveness of psychotherapeutic treatment of personality disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 138–143. Abstract/FREE Full Text
↵ Bion, W. R. (1967) Attacks on linking. In Second Thoughts: Selected Papers on Psycho-Analysis, pp. 93–109. London: Maresfield Library.
↵ Brockman, B., Poynton, A., Ryle, A., et al (1987) Effectiveness of time-limited therapy carried out by trainees. Comparison of two methods. British Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 602–610. Abstract
↵ Cowmeadow, P. (1994) Deliberate self harm and cognitive analytic therapy.International Journal of Short Term Psychotherapy, 9, 135–150.
Engestrom, Y., Miettinen, R. & Punamaki, R. (eds) (1999) Perspectives on Activity Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
↵ Fonagy, P. (1991) Thinking about thinking: some clinical and theoretical considerations in the treatment of a borderline patient. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 72, 639–656.
↵ Fonagy, P. & Target, M. (1997) Attachment and reflective function: their role in self-organization. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 679–700.CrossRefMedline
↵ Fosbury, J. A. (1994) Cognitive analytic therapy with poorly controlled insulin-dependent diabetic patients. In Psychology and Diabetes Care (ed. C. Coles). Chichester: PMH Production.
↵ Kelly, G. A. (1955) The Psychology of Personal Constructs. New York: Norton.
↵ Mann, J. & Goldman, R. (1982) A Case book in Time-Limited Psychotherapy. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Margison, F. (2000) Cognitive analytic therapy: a case study in treatment development (editorial). British Journal of Medical Psychology, 73, 145–149.
Marzillier, J. & Butler, G. (1995) CAT in relation to cognitive therapy. InCognitive Analytic Therapy: Developments in Theory and Practice (ed. A. Ryle), pp. 121–138. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
Minors-Wallis, L. (2001) Problem-solving treatment in general practice.Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, in press.
↵ Palmer, R. (2001) Dialectical behaviour therapy. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, in press.
↵ Ryle, A. (1990) Cognitive Analytic Therapy: Active Participation in Change. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
↵ Ryle, A. (1991) Object relations theory and activity theory: a proposed link by way of the procedural sequence model. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 64, 307–316.
↵ Ryle, A. (1992) Critique of a Kleinian case presentation. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 65, 309–317.
↵ Ryle, A. (1993) Addiction to the death instinct? A critical review of Joseph's paper ‘Addiction to near death’. British Journal of Psychotherapy, 10, 88–92.
Ryle, A. (1994a) Projective identification: a particular form of reciprocal role procedure. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 67, 107–114.
↵ Ryle, A. (1994b) Persuasion or education: the role of reformulation in CAT.International Journal of Short Term Psychotherapy, 9, 111–118.
↵ Ryle, A. (1995a) Research relating to CAT. In Cognitive Analytic Therapy: Developments in Theory and Practice (ed. A. Ryle), pp. 174–189. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
↵ Ryle, A. (1995b) Defensive organizations or collusive interpretations? A further critique of Kleinian theory and practice. British Journal of Psychotherapy, 12, 60–68.
Ryle, A. (1996) Ogden's autistic-contiguous position and the role of interpretation in analytic theory building. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 69, 129–138.
↵ Ryle, A. (1997) Cognitive Analytic Therapy for Borderline Personality Disorder: The Model and the Method. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
↵ Ryle, A. (1998) Transferences and countertransferences: the cognitive analytic therapy perspective. British Journal of Psychotherapy, 14, 303–309.
Teasdale, J. D. & Barnard, P. J. (1993) Affect, Cognition and Change in Remodelling Depressive Thought. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Young, J. E. (1986) A cognitive-behavioural approach to friendship disorders. In Friendship and Social Interaction (eds V. J. Derlega & B. A. Winstead), pp. 247–276. New York: Springer.
↵ Young, J. E. (1990) Cognitive Therapy for Personality Disorders: A Schema Focused Approach. Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Exchange.
不適応行動の治療-1
人間の精神的不調にもいろいろあるのだが
その中で、なぜだか、現在の状況にそぐわない行動をしてしまい
結果として不適応を起こしている人達がいる
現在の状況に応じた合理的な行動ができなくて
子供の頃に身につけたままの古い行動パターンで対処している人が多い
ーーー
まず、あなたの目的は何かをまず明確にする。目指しているが達成できないことは何かを明確にする。
その目的のための手段としてどのような行動を採用しているか分析する。
その手段がどのように不適応であるか理解する。
そしてその不適応行動の根源は人生初期つまり子供の頃の体験であったことを示す。
子供の頃としては適切な行動であったものが、現在となっては不適切な行動であることを示す。
その学習からいかにして抜けられるかを示す。
ーーー
学習には強い学習から弱い学習まで幅があり
概ね、強い学習は人生に数少ない機会にしか起こらない
強い学習は、同時に、訂正が困難ということでもある
したがって、学習を訂正していただくにあたっても、特別な工夫が必要になる。
今は「閉じて」しまっている強い学習回路を、訂正可能とするために「開く」必要がある
そのために治療者との信頼関係を使い、薬剤の効果を使う
ーーー
たとえば
子供の頃親との関係で学習した行動パターンであれば
現在、かつての親と同等程度の信頼関係を築ける人間を相手にして、再度学習する
たとえば
思春期にホルモンのスパートがあって学習した行動パターンであれば
再度類似の状況を作り、学習すれば良い
人間に、一生に一度の学習は色いろあることがわかっている
そこで学習したことが
後の人生で役立たない場合、訂正が必要である
ーーー
以上は適応障害の問題であるが
精神病についても推論できる
概ね人間は、生まれた環境でドパミンレベルがセットされるし、行動パターンもセットされる
出産して子育てをして次の世代を育成するまで
たぶん30歳か40歳くらいまでの設定だろう
その範囲では大きな環境変化はないものとして設計されているのだと思う
ーーー
ところが近年では環境変化が激しい
ひとつには同じ場所でも環境が変化し
ひとつには人間が移動するのでその人にとっての環境が大きく変化する
そういった環境では当然のことであるが不適応が発生しやすい
強い学習を訂正するほうが変化には強いのであるが
強い学習を維持することのメリットもまた大きいのであるから
ここには矛盾がありどちらが有利とも言えない面がある
ーーー
産業革命と、地方農民の次男三男が都会に集まり社会を形成することは
表裏のことと指摘されている
子供時代に田舎でドパミンレベルと行動パターンがセットされた個人が
都会に住む場所を変えて仕事も変えて対人関係様式も変える
そこに発病の機会が発生する
不適応行動の治療-2
現実の状況に対して
行動が不適切である場合
を考える
人間はそれぞれの場面で
自分なりに最も適切と思う行動を選択しているのであるが
例えて言えば算数の計算間違いのような形で
不適応を起こす場合がある
その場合は原則もなにもなくて
ただ頭が混乱していると考えていいと思う
そのような場合が圧倒的に多いし
多いのだからむやみに重症になったりはしない
そうでない場合があって
それは現実の場面があまりに難問であるとき
人間は考えることをやめて
過去の行動パターンでやりくりしようとする
精神分析では退行という
脳科学で言えば
新しい行動パターンによって抑制されていた古い行動パターンが
新しい行動パターンでは適応不可能だと判断したときに
使われる
古い行動パターンというのは
一つには自分の経験での過去の行動パターンである
子供時代の行動パターンなどになる
もう一つは進化論的に古い行動パターンのこともあって
それはたとえば哺乳類としての古い行動パターンということになる
それは胎児期の脳の形成という事にもなり
たとえばトランスパーソナルで言われているような
胎児期の記憶とか
出産時の外傷記憶とか
に関係するのかもしれない
もちろん個人の体験として哺乳類の発生の過程は
顕在的記憶にはないのであるが
そして意識を中心として心理学では解釈が難しいのであるが
個体発生のそもそもから考えれば
個体発生は系統発生を反復するのが原則であって
脳もそのようにできていて
上位機能が壊れると下位機能が顕在化することは
原則のとおりである
そのような観点から
(1)精神病理を個体発生の観点から、生活史をさかのぼって検証する
(2)精神病理を進化論的に系統発生的に検証する
この二つの観点は同じものだということができる
ーーーー
古いものが下位にあり
新しいものが上位にある階層構造を考えて
どこかの部分が壊れたときに
そこから上位の機能は失われて
そこから下位の機能は顕在化する
ジャクソニズムを簡単にいえばそういうことになる
目の前にある精神症状は
上位機能の喪失と
下位機能の顕在化の
ふたつの混合である
ーーーー
臨死体験というものがあり
かなり共通した証言をする
なぜだろうかと考えるとき
臨死体験の時には
出産時の記憶を反復するのではないかと
個人的に考えることがある
出産時の記憶は
多かれ少なかれ似ているのだから
臨死体験も非常に似たものになるはずである
上位機能が次々に失われていって
最後に見えるもの
不適応行動の治療-3
現実の問題に対して不適切な対処をしている場合
それは病気なのかどうか
問題になる
病気というものは
障害に対応する物質的構造変化の病理所見があって
はじめて病気と言うべきである
そのような病理所見がないのに
病気と安易に言うべきではない
しかし
障害概念であれば
本人にとって不都合があると言う観点で語ることができる
さてその場合
心理的な次元のことが原因で混乱が生じるものなのか
あるいは生物学的な次元のことが原因で混乱が生じるものなのか
議論がある
日常体験の延長で言えば
ストレスが引き金となって
抑うつや不安が発生することの方が理解しやすい
しかし実際には
生物学的に病気になる準備がすでにできていて
その上に何かのエピソードがあり
本人としては障害が発生したと自覚できる場合が多いのではないかと私は感じている
疾病の準備性といっていいものは
やはり生物学的なものなのだろう
ストレス脆弱性仮説である
そこにきっかけ、つまり、結晶が析出するきっかけになるような出来事があって
症状は発生する
疾病の準備性(日本語として誠になじまない言葉ではあるが)を自覚することはできないので
それが困ったところだ
Cognitive–analytic therapy Chess Denman
Cognitive–analytic therapy
+Author Affiliations
This is the first in a series of papers in APT to be devoted to innovative cognitive psychotherapies. Future papers will discuss very brief dynamic therapy (Aveline, 2001), problem-solving therapy (Mynors-Wallis, 2001) and dialectical behavioural therapy (Palmer, 2001).
Cognitive–analytic therapy (CAT) is a brief focal therapy informed by cognitive therapy, psychodynamic psychotherapy and certain developments in cognitive psychology. It was developed by Anthony Ryle specifically in response to the needs of the National Health Service (NHS) for treatment approaches of short duration. However, it has advanced far beyond its initial aims and is now a well-developed self-contained methodology backed by a fully structured theory of mental functioning and therapeutic change.
Initially, CAT concerned itself with the treatment of neurotic disorders, and it was in this context that the early theoretical and technical elements were established (Ryle, 1990, 1995a). For the past 10 years CAT has turned its attention to the treatment of personality disorders, specifically borderline personality disorder. The need to understand and treat people with this disorder has had a major impact on the theory and practice of CAT (Ryle, 1997). In particular, CAT incorporated ideas derived from both object relations theory and the work of Vygotsky (the Russian psychologist who founded activity theory (Ryle, 1991)).
Basic CAT theory
Two main theoretical structures form the basis of CAT. The first of these is the procedural sequence model, which is an attempt to understand aim-directed action. This model supposes that all aim-directed activity is the consequence of ordered sequences of aim generation, environmental evaluation, plan formation, action, evaluation of consequences and, if necessary, remedial procedural revision (Fig. 1⇓).
Procedural sequences are developed on the basis of experience, and the crucial check step at the end of a sequence means that it is revised if it is not effective. Procedural sequences are therefore usually effective and adaptive. However, some procedural sequences are faulty and they are repeatedly deployed without revision. These cause the repetitive difficulties that characterise some psychological disorders. Procedural sequences include cognitive, motivational, affective and behavioural elements, and Ryle argued that one reason why all psychotherapies have roughly equivalent efficacies is that, for any particular condition, different kinds of psychotherapy may act on different aspects of procedural sequences, but they all beneficially alter a common underlying faulty procedure.
Unrevised faulty procedures
From a review of case notes Ryle described three main kinds of faulty procedure. The first, ‘traps’, represent repetitive cycles of behaviour in which the consequences of the behaviour feed back into its perpetuation. The depressed-thinking trap is a good example of this (Fig. 2⇓). Feeling depressed, the subject acts in ways that make failure and defeat more likely, so that when he or she evaluates the results of the behaviour these are objectively depressing in him or herself. Similar traps describe phobic avoidance, social isolation and other problems.
The second kind of faulty procedure is the ‘dilemma’, which involves the presentation of false choices or of unduly narrowed options. In dilemmas the check step operates but immediately switches the individual to an opposing and equally maladaptive procedure, the check step of which in turn switches back to the first procedure. The placation trap will serve as an example here (Fig. 3⇓). Fearing the consequences of aggression, the individual placates others and allows them to take advantage of him or her; he or she consequently grows more and more cross and eventually switches to an alternative overaggressive procedure with an outburst of anger (often misplaced). The rage, particularly if it is misplaced, often has consequences that are negative or read as negative and the check step switches the individual back to the inappropriate placatory behaviour of the dilemma.
The final kind of maladaptive procedural sequence that Ryle described is the ‘snag’: the subtle negative aspect of goals. Snags are anticipations of the future consequences of actions that are so negative that they are capable of halting a procedure before it ever runs. Then, because the procedure is halted it is never subjected to checks. An example might be a gay man who is frightened to come out to his family because he thinks “If I tell my mother it will kill her.”
Restricted repertoire of procedures
So, CAT supposes that neurotic difficulty results from the operation of unrevised maladaptive procedural sequences. It was soon recognised that a second cause of difficulty was undue restriction in the procedural repertoire. Causes of procedural restriction include: impoverished environmental opportunities for learning new procedures, for example in cases of emotional deprivation and neglect; deliberate attempts by caregivers to restrict procedural repertoires, for example by injunctions to secrecy in cases of sexual abuse; and difficulty in new emotional learning owing to previously learned faulty procedures, as exemplified in case vignette 1.
Case vignette 1
Jenny (18) had spent her entire life in a children's home. She presented with a complaint of compulsive promiscuity, and at the first interview her intense loneliness was also apparent. She had few friends, only acquaintances. The interpersonal procedural sequences that had served her well in the home, where staff often came and went, favoured both rapid and relatively non-discriminating attachment and equally rapid detachment. Indeed, she was actively discouraged from making close friendships with members of staff. Now, in ‘normal’ life, she continued to deploy these procedural sequences and, ironically, by deploying them she subjected herself to the same experience of loneliness among a shifting population of uncaring others that she had experienced as a child.
Borderline personality disorder
While the original formulation of CAT proved effective for a variety of neurotic disorders, more severe personality disorders did not respond well to the piecemeal approach of defining and trying to mediate individual maladaptive procedural sequences. Patients displayed bewilderingly diverse states of mind and induced powerful mental states in their therapists. To improve CAT's capacity to deal with these patients the theory of reciprocal roles was developed.
Ryle described how our early learning about the social world is stored in the form of internalised templates of reciprocal roles. These consist of a role for self, a role for other and a paradigm for their relationship. Reciprocal roles may be benign and functional or harsh and dysfunctional. Examples include caregiver/care receiver, bully/victim, admiring/admired and abuser/abused. In general, reciprocal roles are commonly shared templates. Therefore, when an individual takes up one pole of a reciprocal-role pairing, the person with whom he or she is relating feels pressure to adopt the congruent pole. When the roles in use are moderate and socially congruent this pressure to reciprocate remains largely unnoticed and is generally appropriate. However, in the therapeutic situation, where fewer environmental cues guide role choices and where the patient's own reciprocal-role repertoire is both unusually harsh and emotionally extreme, the therapist can feel a strong pressure to reciprocate in ego-alien ways. This has been explained in psychoanalytic theory by the concepts of countertransference and projective identification. Ryle (1994a) has argued that although these concepts lock on to important phenomena, the explanations associated with them are unduly mystifying. He believes that the theory of reciprocal roles offers a less complicated, more complete and more transparent explanation of the pressure involved.
Levels of deformity
In its theory of personality disorders, and borderline personality disorder in particular, CAT suggests typical deformities of the internalised reciprocal-role structure. Ryle (1997) allocates these to three levels.
The first level is the reciprocal-role repertoire. In normal individuals a wide range of flexible and adaptive reciprocal-role templates is deployed as needed. In people with borderline personality disorder only a small number of highly maladaptive reciprocal roles are available for deployment. This means that within any social situation these people have only limited and often inappropriate templates to call on when planning action.
The second level is that of switching between reciprocal roles and their graceful deployment. In normal individuals there are smooth transitions between roles, for example, in a teacher's relationship to children in the classroom and to colleagues in the staffroom. In borderline disorder, people are poor at switching between states and often show an oversensitive (‘hair-trigger’) response to small stimuli, resulting in unwarranted state changes. One patient left a psychotherapy session apparently in a reasonable state of mind. However, on her way home the bus took her past a graveyard; seeing it, she at once felt suicidally depressed and was later found wandering along railway track.
On Ryle's third level are our capacities for conscious self-reflection and self-control. These capacities allow us to act intelligently in unfamiliar situations and also deliberately to revise ways of acting that have proved unprofitable. Unsurprisingly, self-reflection is the main point of action for psychotherapeutic intervention. It is linked with abilities such as narrative competence and reflective self-functioning, which are increasingly thought to be important in borderline states (Fonagy & Target, 1997).
In normal individuals, self-reflective functioning can be employed with reasonable ease and frequency. In people with borderline personality disorder, it may be entirely absent. The reasons for this are not difficult to see. Self-reflective capacities are acquired in childhood and reinforced by later development. Self-reflection is learnt chiefly in social interaction with others: the child experiences him- or herself as being reflected upon by others and observes others as they reflect upon themselves. For many adults with the most severe borderline disorder, abuse of various kinds in childhood, combined perhaps with constitutional difficulties in self-soothing that made achieving a calm state of mind more problematic than for normal children, deprived them of the key emotional and social learning experiences that would have laid down strong level-three capacities.
Deficiencies in levels two and three result in the emotional instability, irritability and unpredictability typical of borderline personality disorder, while deformities of the underlying repertoire of reciprocal-role templates result in many of the emotional features of the disorder such as extreme guilt and self-loathing, rage and hatred, abusive behaviour and idealised overattachment. The therapist's experience of being dragged through a bewildering and intense emotional minefield results from the successive induction of emotionally intense (often exceedingly dysphoric) reciprocal-role states in the therapist as the patient moves in an uncontrolled and unreflective way through his or her own disastrous reciprocal-role repertoire.
Case vignette 2
Paul (32) consulted in a blankly suicidal state of mind after his girlfriend left him when he assalted her yet again. He had set a date to die and was, in effect, challenging the assessor to talk him out of it. The assessor felt cross but overrode her feelings and tried to continue the assessment. In the middle of the interview Paul noticed a book on the shelf, The Severe Personality Disorders. He suddenly became tearful, saying “That’s what I am, isn't it? A disorder.” After a moment of genuine grief, Paul became angry and contemptuous of the ‘pathetic’ help being offered.
This snippet of Paul's interview illustrates the roller-coaster emotions he experienced. The assessor formulated the reciprocal roles successively enacted as: rebellious and defiant in relation to challenged authority, followed by miserable and dependent in relation to a (probably) uncaring other, and finishing up with furious and contemptuous in relation to a contemptible and interfering other.
Less severely disorganised personalities and neurotic conditions
The practice of CAT has been shaped by two fundamental considerations. The first is the necessity for therapies to be applicable to the large number of patients who could potentially benefit. To that end, CAT was especially developed with the NHS in mind. As a result, the therapy is brief, focal and relatively easy to teach (at least at a basic level). Also there are very few exclusion criteria and interest among CAT therapists has always centred on treating more severely ill patients. A second consideration has been CAT's self-avowed educational perspective on the process of change in therapy (Ryle, 1994b). CAT therapists see their part as the creation, with the patient, of shared tools for self-reflection, which are then used to understand the patient's difficulties and to make beneficial changes. The key notion therefore is the idea that patient and therapist collaborate in a joint venture in which both bring specialist knowledge to a shared arena. In taking this stance, CAT tried to move away from what it saw as the authoritarian position of psychoanalysis, in which the analyst appears to know the content of the patient's mind and makes interpretations based on a logic that is not necessarily revealed to the patient. At first glance, CAT's educational approach makes it look very like cognitive–behavioural therapies (CBTs), but Ryle is critical of these for being too prescriptive. In fact, CBT practice in relation to the flexibility and type of conceptualisations offered varies. Some CBT therapists offer their patients standard models for anxiety or depression – a practice Ryle would criticise. Others, in the schema-focused tradition, offer conceptualisations very similar to those used by CAT therapists. Ryle's criticisms would be less applicable to these latter variants although, ironically, they share with CAT a lack of empirical validation.
Scaffolding
The work of Vygotsky and the school of activity theory (e.g. see Engestrom et al, 1999) has been extremely important in the development of CAT's approach to therapeutic change. Vygotsky proposed the notion of scaffolding, by which he intended to convey the provision by the teacher of just sufficient support to allow students to do with the teacher what they cannot yet do alone. Vygotsky's scaffolding consists in the provision of theoretical knowledge, which the student assimilates by repeated application in practical situations. In CAT, the shared tools for self-reflection that therapist and patient create are the theoretical scaffolding and are unique to each patient. From a CAT point of view, CBT runs the risk of using scaffolding that is too constrictive, while psychoanalytic therapy provides insufficient scaffolding.
Another element of the scaffolding provided for therapist and patient in CAT is the timetable of therapy.
The timetable of therapy
In the first session, as with most therapies, the therapist concentrates on three key tasks. First, a therapeutic alliance must be built in which the patient is helped to feel that work in therapy will be beneficial and worthwhile and that the therapist can be trusted. Next, the patient's story must be gathered. The final task is to give the patient an understanding of the nature, mechanism of action and process of CAT. CAT therapists use open questioning, descriptive reframing and any other methods that seem appropriate to gather history. They give an open account of the nature of therapy and they tend to check the state of the working alliance by asking what the patient thinks and feels about the session as it progresses. At the end of the first session the therapist is very likely to set homework. This will often involve filling in a questionnaire, known as the psychotherapy file, that describes common maladaptive procedures. It may also involve a number of further tasks (such as the drawing up of a life line) designed to flesh out the patient's history.
In the second session, the therapist continues to gather the patient's history, but also begins to work with the patient on constructing a list of the main problems (known as target problems) that the patient is experiencing. A homework commonly set at the end of the second session is the keeping of a diary that monitors the target problems and looks in particular at behaviours and feelings that trigger them.
By the third session, the gathering of the history should have begun to allow the patient and therapist to gain a sense of the main repetitive maladaptive cycles of thinking and acting that the patient gets into and of the main reciprocal roles that the patient deploys. To the extent that this has been possible, the third session can be spent jointly constructing a reformulation of the patient's difficulties.
In the time between the third and fourth sessions the therapist writes a letter to the patient, called a reformulation, which sets out the patient's difficulties as described to the therapist and the understanding of those difficulties that patient and therapist have reached.
The reformulation letter
The reformulation letter most often begins with a narrative account of the patient's life story, because this account makes clear the developmental origins of repetitive patterns. It moves on to outline the current situation, the main problems and the repetitive maladaptive procedures that underlie them. Many reformulation letters also contain a diagram that lays out the repertoire of reciprocal roles used by the patient, the procedural sequences that they deployed around those roles and the symptomatic consequences of those sequences. Patients respond to reformulation letters in a wide variety of ways, which are often related to their underlying problems. Very many of them find the experience of being written and thought about in this way both arresting and moving. They are, without exception, encouraged to annotate, improve, alter and interact with the reformulation letter in negotiation with the therapist until it can become the basis for the rest of therapy.
The following are extracts from the reformulation letter written to Jenny.
Dear Jenny, you came to therapy complaining that you find yourself having sex with people who you did not want to be having a relationship with. You told me you had no close friends and we agreed that you were very lonely. The home you were brought up in must have been a terrible experience for you. With no one secure that you could turn to it is clear that you grew up very fast and you learnt to get support and love wherever it was available. [...]
We have talked about a pattern you learnt of clinging on to anyone who seems to show you affection and then of dumping them quickly as soon as it looked as though they might leave. I think that this pattern, which served you when you were a child, is now a problem for you. As soon as a man seems attracted to you, you cling on and end up having sex. Sometimes you part because neither of you has any great interest in a relationship. Other times (as with Simon) you leave something which could have been promising because of a slight disappointment. [...]
Changing maladaptive procedural sequences
Once a reformulation has been established the task of therapy changes. Now the aim is for the patient, at first with the therapist's help but later independently, to become able to recognise the operation of maladaptive procedural sequences or reciprocal roles as they occur in everyday life. A useful feature of maladaptive procedural sequences is that they are frequently employed in a wide range of situations and can therefore be recognised in both major and minor guises. For example, given that most patients present with interpersonal problems it is not surprising that maladaptive procedural sequences come to be operative within the interpersonal setting of the therapy session. CAT therapists try to predict, on the basis of the reformulation letter, the likely transference and countertransference feelings and enactments that will become active during sessions. When accurately anticipated and identified, maladaptive procedures that operate within the session can be used as occasions for learning and change, and the possibility that they will interfere with therapy can be reduced.
Jenny's therapist was a woman, but even so she anticipated that she would be come a figure of both anticipation and disappointment to her patient. She was meticulous about inquiring how Jenny felt about breaks in the therapy and was exceedingly careful to discuss at length the end of therapy and feelings it might arouse in Jenny. Initially, Jenny tended to dismiss this sort of inquiry as “therapy stuff”, but after the therapist cancelled a session owing to illness it was possible to explore feelings of disappointment and a wish to leave therapy and not come back.
As patients improve their ability to recognise the operation of their maladaptive procedural sequences and reciprocal roles, they often spontaneously begin to try out new ways of behaving. The therapist can assist this process by positively encouraging change, using active role-play techniques or brainstorming solutions with the patient. The procedural understanding of the patient's difficulties often suggests ‘exits' in general terms, and the patient and therapist work together to develop these into particular lived out solutions.
By now, therapy is nearing its end (CAT is traditionally 16 or 24 sessions long). As with all brief therapies, termination has been explicitly discussed since the very first session, and CAT therapists handle termination issues in much the same way as other brief therapists. However, the reformulation provides CAT therapists with a major tool for anticipating the likely reactions of the patient to the loss of therapy, and patient and therapist can talk through these anticipated reactions at appropriate points during therapy, as was the case with Jenny.
The goodbye letter
In the penultimate session the therapist gives the patient another letter, known as the goodbye letter. This briefly outlines the reason the patient came to treatment and recounts the story of the therapy. It tries to give an account of what has been achieved during therapy and also to mention things that have not yet been achieved. The letter outlines the therapist's hopes and fears for the patient in the future, sketching out ways that understandings reached in therapy might be used helpfully. Many patients choose to give the therapist a goodbye letter of their own. A follow-up session is booked, generally for 3 months hence. This allows evaluation of the effects of therapy. There is often evidence of continued improvement during that period.
この人生のちぐはぐさ
この人生のちぐはぐさは
たとえば
掛け算をやっと覚えたのに
電卓を買ってもらった子供みたい
知っていて悪いこともないけれど
知らなくても全く支障はない
熱い人
躁状態先行仮説:気分障害再考
http://shinbashi-ssn.blog.so-net.ne.jp/2009-05-21
ナシア・ガミーは色々と著作があるが翻訳されたものとしては「現代精神医学原論」みすず書房・村井俊哉訳(2009)。原著は2007。
The primacy of mania: A reconsideration of mood disorders
Athanasios Koukopoulos (a), S. Nassir Ghaemi(b)
(a) Centro Lucio Bini, 42. Via Crescenzio, 00193 Rome,Italy
(b) Mood Disorders Program, Department of Psychiatry, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
Received 6 March 2008; received in revised form 7 July 2008; accepted 13 July 2008
Just The Way You Are (訳詞付) - Billy Joel
Honesty(訳詞付) / Billy Joel
言葉による理解の問題
たとえば
患者さんの症状についての患者さん自身の言葉を聞いて
表情を見て
自律神経系の反応を見て
また家族の話を聞いて
治療者の投げかける言葉や表情に対する反応を見て
治療者は治療戦略に役立つ何かの仮説を立てて薬剤や精神療法の選択をする
そのような判断を患者さんに話すのだが
それが患者さんの抱く『常識』や『知識レベル』に反している場合
話が難しくなってしまう
患者さんが「すごくイライラして怒りっぽいんです」
という場合
うつだと判断する人もいるしそうだと判断する人もいる
うつはしおれて元気がないものの「ハズ」で
怒るなんて元気ありすぎ、というわけである
また、そうは、朗らかで機嫌がいいことで、
怒るということはマイナスの感情なのだから
いらいらして怒っている人はそう状態のはずはない、というわけである
単に言葉の問題だから
日本語としてどれが正しいと決めてもらえば
それでいいだけのことなのだけれども
時間が経つに連れて
言葉の意味内容も異なるようになる
われわれは精神医学の専門なので
学問的には先取りした形で言葉を使っているのだが
若者は若者でネット社会などで独自の精神医学があるようで
なにか思い込んでいることがあるらしいが
そこまで研究は届かない
ーーー
さらに患者さんが「いらいらしています」と自己申告したとして
その言葉そのものの意味合いについては
患者さんの判断と意思の判断はそっくり同じではない
うつっぽいんです
という人に対して
双極性障害ですね
といえば
ピンとくる人にはピンと来るが
来ない人には不信感だけだろう
ーーー
このあたりの啓蒙と言うか洗脳が最も進んでいるのは
柔整の領域である
すべては骨盤の歪み、すべては背骨の歪み、
頚椎がずれていて、考えられないくらい肩がこっている、
そういう理解は
ある種の患者さんたちの感じ方・考え方とぴったり一致していて
施術する側もされる側もよく理解するようで何の困難もないようである
ーーー
精神医学の世界では
「うつ」という言葉が圧倒的に市民権を得ていて
むかしは「うつ」とかというと
自分は精神病ではないと怒ったりしたものだが
最近ではむしろ自分の要求通りと満足する人が多いようだ
そのうち「双極性障害」が広がると思う
それは薬剤の認可が日本でも始まったからで
これから大量宣伝が展開されるはずであるが
アメリカに比較するとまだ薬剤認可の範囲が狭いので本格的ではない
そんな状況で双極性障害と診断するのは
まだ少し早いらしい
そのうち、うつ病は機能減退するだけだけれども、
双極性障害は素晴らしい能力を発揮することもある病気だから悪くない
というような話になると思う
ーーー
うつとそうが反対のもので
だから同時に起こるはずはないというのが常識なのだろう
昼ではないから夜なのだし
夜ではないから昼なので
そうではないからうつなので
うつではないからそうなのだ
と理解しているらしい
磁石のNとSの話でもいいのだけれど
もともと磁性体はランダムに並んでいるから
その金属全体としてはNでもSでもないというだけのことだ
強力に磁場の中において
磁性体の向きを揃えればNSの極性を帯びる
だから微小な磁性体を考えると
NSがランダムに並んでいるのと同じ話で
脳神経細胞としてはそうとうつがたくさん混じっている
そうなると一人の人でそうとうつが同時に見られても何もおかしなことではない
例えばの話
四角い金属を左右に分割して
NSを互いに逆にしたものを作りまたくっつけて
奇妙な金属を作ることもできる
どちらの端もNSどちらも帯びているわけだ
精神も同じでそうとうつは同時存在できるのだ
でも、現状では、常識は、私はうつなのだから病院に来たのであって、
そうだから来たのではないということになる
ーーーーー
ゆううつと朗らかならば要素的な言葉なので問題はないが
うつ状態とそう状態に関しては医学用語として考えているので
やはり次元が違うし
それを元にして診断や治療が組み立てられるのだから
やはり譲れない部分である
ーーーーー
とても極端な話をすると
「わたしは仲間にいじめられてうつになりました」
という話から始まって
いろいろと確認して、その結果として、
「あなたは統合失調症です、治療を開始しましょう」
と言ったとする
この場面ではなかなか素直にはなれないだろうと思う
「自分はうつだと言っているのに、なぜ統合失調症だと判断されるのか」
と訝しく思うだろう
そういうものだ
一瞬、治療者の頭がおかしいのではないかと思う人もいるだろう
それが人間の相互性である
しかしこれは所詮は言葉の問題なのである
うつや双極性障害や統合失調症という言葉で何を意味しているかが
各人で共通であれば何も問題はない
ある程度抽象的な言葉なので意味のズレが生じてしまう
さらに外国語問題が関わるとさらに危険なことになる
ーーーーー
円周率は3ではなくて3.14というくらい自明のことなのであるが
治療者に3.14といわれて
この治療者は円周率が3であることも知らないのかと考えるとしたら
治療者はそのたびに3.14のほうが適切なのだと説明するのだろうか
一応3でいいのでそれで説明を進めるのがいいのだろうか
所詮は正確ではないのだから
どちらでも変わりはないのだろうか
正確な説明に微分方程式とか必要な場合はどうするのだろう
簡単な道理も理解しない人だったらどうするのだろう
いや
精神医学の場合には
それ自体が診断材料として有力なのだから
むしろ問題はないのだ
ただそれを患者さんが
理解して納得するまでが大変だ
しかしその大変さを確認できれば
診断はますます正しい訳だから
悪いことでもない
アメリカなどでの全寮制学校
先輩に聞いた話
-----
アメリカなどで未成年の時代に全寮制の学校に入れられると
大人ではないので自由も様々に部分的に制限されて
それでも当然と思われている
アメリカで成人してからの学校は
性交渉も薬物も自己責任で自由である
アメリカで子供時代を過ごし大人になった場合、自由すぎる大学に進学しても
羽目を外すのは一部の変な人と心得ている
日本で子供自体を過ごしてアメリカの大学に行くと、自由すぎて
素直に羽目を外してしまう
これはつまり大学生になっても中身は子供だということになる
ーーー
モンゴロイドは未成熟で中学生くらいで身体発達が止まるように思われるところがあるのだが
こうした現実をみると
精神的にも中学生くらいで成長停止していると
思われてしまうのではないだろうか
たとえばセックスや薬物をする自由があるのではなく、しない自由があるのだ
商売人が必死になって欲望をそそるものを商品にしている
それを買う自由というのは
あまり自由ではない話だ
むしろ買わない自由のほうが自由らしいだろう
欲望に負ける自由もあるだろうが
欲望に勝つ自由もある
欲望に負ける人が多ければ商売にはなるだろう
子供は欲望に簡単に負けるので
商売人にはいいターゲットだが
お金がないし決定権がない
中身は子供のままで成人して大人の権利を持った人
これが商売人にとっては
絶好のターゲットになる
実生活では大人でも
ネットの中では子供とか
匿名社会では子供とか
愛人の前では子供とか
友達の前ではいい顔をして子供になるとか
コンプレックス(劣等感)を突かれると子供になるとか
そういう場合に効率のいい商売ができるようだ
都圏直撃大地震予報 4年以内70%M7クラス
首都圏直撃の大地震の予報
4年以内に70パーセントとか
マグニチュードは7クラス
帰宅難民問題を考えているらしくて
企業で備蓄して
3日は持ちこたえられるようにして下さいとの事
何で今のこの時期なのかなと思うが
3.11の少し前にという意見と
寒い時期なのでここで何か起こっても大変なので
備えておこうとか
あるいは重大な予兆があったのか
地震が来たら外に出ないで建物の中で安全を確保して下さいと話していた
どうしたらいいのかと思うがどうしようもない
慌てずに対処するしかない
うつ病分類の勉強
設問1
DSMにあげられている気分障害の各病気について
横軸を時間、縦軸をうつ病症状としてグラフを描き
理解しなさい
設問2
DSMにあげられている気分障害と不安障害の各病気について
横軸を不安、縦軸をうつとして、領域のグラフを描き、
理解しなさい
ーーーーーーーー
気分障害
双極性障害
I型双極性障害・・・躁症状とうつ症状
II型双極性障害・・・軽躁症状とうつ症状
気分循環性障害・・・軽い躁症状と軽いうつ症状
特定不能の双極性障害
うつ病性障害
大うつ病性障害・・・ふつうにいううつ病。
気分変調性障害・・・軽いうつ症状が2年以上続く(抑うつ神経症)
特定不能のうつ病性障害
ーーー
大うつ病エピソード、躁病エピソード、混合性エピソード、軽躁病エピソードについては定義が細かく記載されている。
ーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーー
不安障害
全般性不安障害
パニック障害/広場恐怖
社会恐怖
単一恐怖[特定の恐怖症]
強迫性障害
PTSD
ASD
このようにしてわたしは生き、そしてすべてを失った
寒いを具体的エピソードで表現する
2012年2月3日
寒いねーと挨拶するが
こんな感じで寒いという
具体的なエピソードが欲しいと
思ってしまう
天気予報のように気温の数字で表現するのは
一つの方法であるが実感そのものではない
寒さの体験そのものを言葉にすると
どうなるか
というのが個人的な課題である
知らないほうが良かったなと思うことの方が多くはないだろうか
人生は
知らないほうが良かったなと思うことの方が多くはないだろうか
知った方がいいかなあ
知らない方が幸せだったように思う
ーーー
たとえばネットなどでもだまされる方が悪いんだから
リテラシーを身につけなさいとかいう
そうなんだろうか
ーーー
女にだまされるのもリテラシーがないといえば言えるのだろうか
後輩は出て行った女が帰ってきたと喜んでいるのだが
喜んでいいことなのだろうか
ーーー
インフルエンザの話を頻繁に聞くので
アルコールで手を消毒している